How did Popular Culture Contribute to the Rise of a United States Empire at the End of the Nineteenth Century?

How did Popular Culture Contribute to the Rise of a United States Empire at the End of the Nineteenth Century?

by Yaaseen Baksh

Yaaseen is a student at the University of Birmingham studying History BA from 2020 to 2023. He has an interest in all things Empire and is a keen numismatist, specialising in British numismatics from 1816 to 1970 regarding the duodecimal currency.

In 1893 the United States had been conquered internally to its fullest extent, paving the way for new frontiers to be opened.¹ These new territories that were explored created a new popular culture centred around the Empire. This popular culture explored scientific racism, created new domestic fashions and gender stereotypes and linked a booming economy and patriotism to the Empire. Therefore, giving rise to a United States Empire at the end of the nineteenth century.

Scientific racism contributed to the rise of an Empire. In the nineteenth century writers in the United States advocated Teutonic supremacy, this was called Aryan soon after and Nordic in the twentieth century.² They thought democracy began in ancient Germany, the German tribes brought it to England who then brought it to the United States; therefore, democracy was inherently part of white Americans.³ Edward Freeman, a writer, toured the United States in the 1880s, advocated that these nations should come together to rule the world.⁴ Therefore, there was a sense that the United States was superior due to its racial make-up. White supremacy can be seen in practice in American culture through exhibitions. A group of Omaha businessmen ensured the opening of the First Greater American Colonial Exposition which took place from 1 July to 1 November 1899.⁵ The Exposition had speeches, mock battles, parades and most importantly, colonised people.⁶ The Exposition promised ‘over a thousand natives of Uncle Sam’s insular possessions’, however they only managed thirty-five.⁷ Therefore, colonised people were at the centre of this new popular culture and acted as a way to draw in tourists. White Americans were able to congregate together in mass and be put in opposition to coloured people.

However, this racial superiority may have not been obvious to those who visited. In response to the Filipinos at the 1899 Exposition the Omaga Daily commented that they were ‘intelligent looking’, ‘well built’ and ‘attractive’. Therefore, there was no sense of a racial divide, no authority among the whites, and no sense between colonised and coloniser. After all, the United States was originally thirteen colonies ruled by Britain. Therefore, as they once belonged to an Empire, they would surely be aware of these feelings. Blacks were seen as slaves and belonging on plantations, even when slavery was over, but with the Filipinos the public were confused on where they fitted in with society. Therefore, popular culture didn't solidify the racial divide. So, there was a missing cog in scientific racism. Therefore, popular culture perpetuating scientific racism was meaningless as the Empire at the end of the nineteenth century was far too young.

The fact the American Empire was a recent phenomenon must be noted. Therefore, rather than popular culture setting narratives and ideologies it was in search of them. Its job was to educate the public rather than promote empire. This view is agreed with by Antony Hopkins who writes ‘The world was so large, the oceans so wide and their own continent so vast and empty, it was impossible for Americans to be concerned with foreign affairs.’⁸ Michael Hawkins agrees and writes ‘Americans did not have any knowledge of Filipinos.’⁹ As Hawkins argues, the directors of the 1899 fair needed to strike a balance with the Filipino Exhibition so it was not a ‘freak show’ but needed to be seen as ‘rare’, ‘new’, ‘valuable’ and exotic otherwise it would lose ‘scientific and social credibility.’¹⁰ With regard to this, the public may have not been aware of it, but subtle changes to their assumptions, thoughts and attitudes were being changed to inhibit racial superiority. This is concurred by the aims of the Exposition which lay out in the guide that it was a ‘great educational enterprise.’¹¹ In 1888 James Bryce published The American Commonwealth which argued that people should be ordered by race and rank.¹² Hence expositions were the places that Americans built up their attitudes on how the world was represented, where it would be hierarchised and ordered according to the Americans. The fair happened a short time after the Spanish-American war; accordingly popular culture took advantage of the times and argued that America’s benefit from wars was to have an Empire.

Americans did not even have to travel to experience the culture of the Empire, they could do so at home. Mark Twain published A Connecticut Yankee in 1889.¹³ In this novel Hank Morgan is in the sixth century, medieval England, and encounters savages who destroy the work of the west and in the end kills them; it is full of violence and success.¹⁴ This could be reciprocated by America finding new lands to explore, as the west had already been discovered and Americans were bored. Twain used old ideas of the dime novel which were about Native Americans and the wild west and reworked them with the Empire.¹⁵ Consequently showing the Empire was an age of renewal, a place of new ideas and thoughts all perpetuated through white superiority.

New domestic fashions in home decoration also promoted the idea of a United States Empire. In 1853 Mathew Perry landed in Japan and began trading, which led to ‘Japonisme’ taking hold in America for decades; this was the fascination with Japan.¹⁶ Mass produced Japanese souvenirs were available in the 1876 Philadelphia Exposition and in 1881 Tiffany and Company produced menu cards with Japanese motifs.¹⁷ This is an example of commercial geography, businesses were selling other countries through objects so these people who had them could easily participate in the Empire. This created a people who thought dominating an economy abroad had benefits to them personally and to the United States.

In the 1890s the Colonial Revival took hold in American homes. In the magazine Art Amateur, in 1899, an article about children’s bedrooms linked interior decoration to the success of the American Empire.¹⁸ It described boys' bedrooms having to be distinctly militaristic, with a ‘trophy’ on display, a ‘bookcase’ and with the Colonial revival being evident due to the ladder-back style of the chairs and decorative cloths.¹⁹ The picture of the boy’s bedroom shows a model ship, swords, paintings, sports equipment, books and souvenirs.²⁰ Therefore, with the harsh wood, men have to be strong, knowledgeable, winners, healthy and violent in order to defend the empire. The focus on the boy’s bedroom is the possessions, which could hint at the imperial possessions. Therefore, by boys having all these objects in their room they were having a piece of empire. While the magazine showed that in the girl’s bedroom, the bed takes prominent place with a desk for writing, photographs, a mirror with a dresser, flowers and needlework on display.²¹ Therefore, girls should remember those who have gone and write to those men she will have to say goodbye to -- they should rest, take care with their appearance and support men in a traditionally feminine way. Therefore, the Empire is shown to be masculine but the support of women is vital. David Brody concludes with this evidence that ‘The Colonial Revival enabled Americans to utilize material culture to construct an imagined sense of nationalism.’²² Therefore, the Americans had to work towards a society with traditional American and Christian masculinity and femininity to out survive the inferior races to establish the best society.

If, as Brody argues, the Empire is ‘imagined’, then popular culture is not giving into an actual sense of the rise of the Empire, rather it is a false fantasy. If it was just a fantasy though, then the Empire would not be present in many other areas of home design. The Singer Manufacturing Company at the 1893 Chicago Exposition demonstrated sewing techniques, historical styles, different fabrics and tapestries and in case women forgot, they sold cards detailing the products so women were able to experience the Empire and culture.²³ One company logo the Singer Company adopted had the tagline ‘Great Civilizer.’²⁴ Therefore, gender for the Singer Company had a key role in promoting the Empire. Women could purchase the sewing machines and participate in being civilised and belonging to the white western world. In 1892 the Singer Company started issuing nation cards which advertised their products, they had pictures of native people, where they came from and the clothes they wore.²⁵ Therefore, each card was like a little geography lesson for women, in buying the products they could be patriotic in supporting a company which was civilized and participated in a commercial venture to further the Empire.

Consumers of imperial popular culture were allowed to link a sense of patriotism with economic benefit. Scientists in the nineteenth century discovered that a rich nitrogen soil would give high crop yields, therefore organic matter was needed in making sure soil was rich in these nutrients.²⁶ The ideal organic matter was bird excrement, which was found in abundance on the rocky and remote Caribbean islands.²⁷ The excrement, called guano was mined on islands and by 1900 the US had claimed almost 100 Caribbean islands.²⁸ In Les Misérables Jean Valjean remarks for an entire chapter that some use could be found for the waste Paris produces.²⁹ There was even a music sheet created called ‘Song of the Age of Guano’.³⁰ Therefore, economic benefits were being perpetuated in popular culture. The age of renewal for America was also linked with the Empire. In 1871 the Great Fire ripped through Chicago, before an exposition occurred.³¹ The exposition Chicago held showed it could out-strengthen fire, build back from ruins and America was strong at home and they could be even stronger abroad. Therefore, the Empire represented America being superior. This helped Americans see that they had the means to build an Empire. The expositions allowed mass tourism which was facilitated by the railways, by 1890 there were 166,703 miles of track.³² These railways needed carpenters, blacksmiths and station-workers which created a travel economy. This mass consumerism was further spurred on by newspapers. In 1895 there were no frontpage articles on the Philippines on the five major American Newspapers, including the Washington Post and Chicago Tribune but by 1898 there were 2000.³³ This is evidence that people were influenced in promoting the Empire by what they read, saw, and where they were employed.

The rise of this American Empire through linking economic benefit with the Empire, was due to the Republican government though. When the Filipinos arrived in the United States, Major General Elwell Stephen Otis initially denied them entry, but it was later decided to let them in.³⁴ The War Department also loaned the exposition material from the war, like trophies and photo negatives and President McKinley endorsed the exhibit.³⁵ Brody argues that by placing the Philippines on the map of the United States Empire ‘McKinley incited the experience of empire’.³⁶

However, the Republican government only gained the Philippines through popular culture. Popular culture created competition between manufactures, newspaper companies and farmers. The ones who spread imperial material therefore had to be quick in order to make a profit. For example, two rival newspapers were owned by William Randolf Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, Hearst sent an illustrator, Frederic Remington, to Cuba to draw the atrocities of war. Therefore, newspaper companies wanted to be in the action. This enabled their readers to spread the imperial message. The Maine, a US battleship, was accidentally blown up on 15^th February 1898 and most of the crew were killed, Hearst newspapers read ‘Remember the Maine!’, blaming the Spanish.³⁷ Any party in a democracy would have the policy of winning elections, so with an election looming McKinley declared war on Spain. Therefore, Republican policy reacted to popular culture.

The idea that the Empire being of economic benefit could also legitimately be done and would not invoke double standards that the United States did not want to be part of the British Empire but could have her own. Richard Harding Davis published Soldiers of Fortune in 1897 which narrates the story of how Clay, an American civil engineer who managed a US iron mine in the South, is threatened by the monarchy in Europe but secures the interests of the mine and protects democracy.³⁸ Accordingly, this demonstrated that Americans had to expand before Europeans did. It also shows that Clay does not own the territory that the mine is on but defends it so he can make a profit from the mine, and therefore economic development without formal expansion. This created the idea of an informal empire. This is heavily important, as America had independence from the British Empire so rejected formal empire. Therefore, by American citizens allowing an informal empire their history and heritage is respected but they can be patriotic imperialists too.

To conclude, popular culture influenced the attitudes of the working-class, women, boys, girls, families, the federal government, tourists, readers, musicians, farmers, writers, publishers, manufactures, businessmen, musicians and travellers. Therefore, touching on every single aspect of American life. The impact popular culture had on all these different types of people when accumulated gave permission for a United States Empire.

Bibliography

Brody, David. Visualising American Empire: Orientalism and Imperialism in the Philippines. United States of America: University of Chicago press, 2010.

Brogan, Hugh. The History of the USA. United Kingdom: Penguin Books, 2001.

Domosh, Mona. American Commodities in an Age of Empire. United States of America: Routledge, 2006.

Hawkins, Michael C. “Undecided Empire The Travails of Imperial Representation of Filipinos at the Greater America Exposition, 1899.” Philippine Studies: Historical & Ethnographic Viewpoints 63, no. 3 (2015): 341-63. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24672353

Hopkins, Antony. American Empire: A Global History. United States of America: Princeton University Press, 2018.

Immerwahr, Daniel. How to Hide an Empire: A Short History of the Greater United States. United Kingdom: Penguin Books, 2020.

Jackson, John P, and Nadine M Weidman. “The Origins of Scientific Racism.” The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, no. 50 (2005): 66-79. http://www.jstor.org.ezproxye.bham.ac.uk/stable/25073379.

Marling, Karal Ann. “Writing History with Artifacts: Columbus at the 1893 Chicago Fair.” The Public Historian14, no. 4 (1992): 13-30. doi:10.2307/3377858.

Moore, Colin. American Imperialism and the State 1893-1921. (United States of America: Cambridge University Press, 2017

Morris, Christopher D. “The Deconstruction of the Enlightenment in Mark Twain's ‘A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court’ (1889).” Journal of Narrative Theory 39, no. 2 (2009): 159-85. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41427203.

Murphy, Gretchen. “The Spanish-American War, US Expansion, and the Novel.” The Oxford History of the Novel in English: Volume 6: The American Novel 1879-1940, edited by Priscilla Wald and Michael Elliot, 185-199. United States of America: Oxford University Press, 2014.

Pfitzer, Gregory M. “‘Iron Dudes and White Savages in Camelot’: The Influence of Dime-Novel Sensationalism on Twain's ‘A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court.’” American Literary Realism, 1870-1910 27, no. 1 (1994): 42-58. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27746595.

Rydell, Robert. All the World’s A Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916. United States of America, University of Chicago Press, 1984.

1^ Mona Domosh, American Commodities in an Age of Empire (United States of America: Routledge, 2006), 12.

2^ John Jackson and Nadine Weidman, “The Origins of Scientific Racism,” The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, no.50 (2005): 70.

3^ Jackson and Weidman, “The Origins of Scientific Racism,” 70.

4^ Jackson and Weidman, “The Origins of Scientific Racism,” 70.

5^ Daniel Immerwahr, How to Hide an Empire: A Short History of the Greater United States (United Kingdom: Penguin Books, 2020), 82-3.

6^ Immerwahr, How to Hide an Empire, 82.

7^ Immerwahr, How to Hide an Empire, 82.

8^ Antony Hopkins, American Empire: A Global History (United States of America: Princeton University Press, 2018), 436.

9^ Michael Hawkins, “Undecided Empire: The Travails of Imperial Representation of Filipinos at the Greater American Exposition, 1899,” Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints 63, no.3 (2015): 342.

10^ Hawkins, “Undecided Empire,” 354.

11^ Hawkins, “Undecided Empire,” 344.

12^ Hopkins, American Empire, 252.

13^ Hopkins, American Empire, 329.

14^ Gregory Pfitzer, “‘Iron Dudes and White Savages in Camelot’”: The Influence of Dime-Novel Sensationalism on Twain's ‘A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court,’” American Literary Realism, 1870-1910 27, no.1 (1994): 48-9.

15^ Pfitzer, “‘Iron Dudes and White Savages in Camelot,’” 56.

16^ David Brody, Visualising American Empire: Orientalism and Imperialism in the Philippines (United States of America: University of Chicago press, 2010), 38.

17^ Brody, Visualising American Empire, 38, 42.

18^ Brody, Visualising American Empire, 53

19^ Brody, Visualising American Empire, 53.

20^ Brody, Visualising American Empire, 54.

21^ Brody, Visualising American Empire, 55.

22^ Brody, Visualising American Empire, 55.

23^ Domosh, American Commodities in an Age of Empire, 56.

24^ Domosh, American Commodities in an Age of Empire, 56.

25^ Domosh, American Commodities in an Age of Empire, 64.

26^ Immerwahr, How to Hide an Empire, 47.

27^ Immerwahr, How to Hide an Empire, 47.

28^ Immerwahr, How to Hide an Empire, 53, 47.

29^ Immerwahr, How to Hide an Empire, 4.

30^ Immerwahr, How to Hide an Empire, 50.

31^ Karal Marling. “Writing History with Artifacts: Columbus at the 1893 Chicago Fair,” The Public Historian, 14, no.4 (1992): 16.

32^ Brogan, History of the USA, 380.

33^ Colin Moore, American Imperialism and the State 1893-1921 (United States of America: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 113.

34^ Hawkins, “Undecided Empire,” 342.

35^ Hawkins, “Undecided Empire,” 348.

36^ Brody, Visualising American Empire, 2.

37^ Brogan, History of the USA, 440.

38^ Gretchen Murphy. “The Spanish-American War, US Expansion, and the Novel,” in The Oxford History of the Novel in English: Volume 6: The American Novel 1879-1940, ed. Priscilla Wald and Michael Elliot (United States of America: Oxford University Press, 2014), 189.