"How Seriously Are We to Take Ideas of ‘Courtly Love’ Outside the Limits of Medieval Literature and Literary Invention?" -- by Darcy R. Keim, MA

How seriously are we to take ideas of ‘courtly love’ outside the limits of medieval literature and literary invention?  by Darcy R. Keim, MA

The subject of ‘courtly love’ has undoubtedly remained a highly debated and discussed characteristic within medieval studies. As a literary construct, it has been observed that ‘courtly love’ engages with a heavily exaggerated idealism of love. Thematically, the manner in which this has been presented in medieval texts is based on a number of repetitive motifs; namely involving concepts such as chivalry (and chivalrous actions), as well as the Petrarchan convention of admiring an individual from afar. Although fictional representations of courtly love remain a widely studied aspect of medieval literature, the conventions involved within the texts have continued to confuse scholars to this day. Arguably, the subject of this uncertainty does relate to a dispute concerning historical authenticity; whether the tradition of courtly love ought to be assessed as a projection of Late Medieval society or as a fictional concept of the period. There is a considerable divide between scholars as to whether fictional representations of courtly interaction could be seen as an accurate depiction of courtly practices. In his article, The Meaning of Courtly Love, Herbert Moller suggests that it is possible to read the content of medieval texts as not only reflecting courtly society but also influencing it; this is clearly proposed when he wrote: 

The entire complex of sentiments and modes of behavior as well as the corresponding poetry was alive only in the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries; much of it, however, finally entered the mainstream of Western Civilization, such as the high evaluation of sentimental love and the conspicuous politeness of gentlemen toward ladies, which became specific Western culture patterns. 

With regards to this, Moller has highlighted that there is a certain degree of comparison between the courtly values enacted in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries; as well as the literary concepts of romance portrayed in Late Medieval texts. However, juxtaposing Moller’s observations is a statement made by Gerhild Scholz Williams in her article, License to Laugh: Making Fun of Chivalry in Some Medieval Texts; in which Williams asserts that although ‘courtly love’ may represent certain social expectations of the High Medieval period. The manner in which this has been depicted in texts is far too exaggerated to be considered as historically rooted. Nonetheless, both the arguments put forward by Moller and Williams offer a re-assessment of how to approach the subject of ‘courtly love’. What this paper will aim to assess is the extent of which literary conventions of romance could be considered as representative of contemporary interactions within the medieval period -- or whether the motifs are too amplified for ‘courtly love’ to be taken seriously outside of fiction.

Firstly, in order to evaluate the extent to which it is possible to assess ‘courtly love’ outside of medieval literature, it is essential to provide background as to how this concept had initially emerged. It has long been asserted by medievalists that the phrase ‘courtly love’ (coined by Gaston Paris in the nineteenth century) is a fairly modern construct. Even so this may be the case, it has been argued that the customs that define ‘court romance’ have been involved in contemporary practice as early as the eleventh century. As a tradition, court poetry is thought to have appeared during the High Medieval period in the form of oral literature. This was seldom a private event and was mostly performed publicly by a troubadour alongside the accompaniment of music. It has been established that thematically, the nature of this poetry focused heavily on the subject of ‘love’; particularly the Petrarchan convention of it. It is through this that scholars have identified a sudden development in the theatrical custom of expressing court romance. With reference to this cultural phenomenon, a significant author to observe is Chrétien de Troyes; a poet, as well as a notable head-figure in reference to Arthurian literature (celebrated works include Le Chevalier de la Charette and Yvain; Percyvell of Galles -- 1179-80). With the support of aristocratic patronage, Chrétien wrote his well-renowned pieces during the latter half of the twelfth century. There is evidence to suggest that Chrétien’s interest and inclusion of ‘love’ was a result of cultural shifts within his own environment. This shift is clearly acknowledged in the article, Chrétien de Troyes and The Love Religion, in which author Helen C. R. Laurie wrote: “The appearance of a love religion in vernacular literature in the north of France in the last third of the century is evidence of the theoretical and scholastic temper which had penetrated the courts from the schools”. Taking this into consideration, it could be argued that the fictional construct of ‘courtly love’ had a deeper cultural impact on contemporary life than had initially been suggested. Therefore, it would not be impractical to propose - with particular emphasis on the arguments put forward by Moller and Laurie - that there were features of ‘courtly love’ that had been practiced during the High Medieval period. Nevertheless, Chrétien has been regarded by literary theorists as one of the most significant writers of courtly romance during the medieval period. Furthermore, it has been argued by cultural historians that as a literary invention, ‘courtly love’ was created by Chrétien himself; even so contemporary authors would not have identified this. Certainly, a primary reason behind this claim has been due to the extensive influence his work had on the development of romance within Middle English texts. With regard to literary representations of courtly love, Chrétien’s work is one of the earliest known examples to encompass the identifiable traits of contemporary romance. 

As to arguing the extent of which fictional representations of ‘courtly love’ reflected contemporary interaction, it would be beneficial to focus on central themes within the overall motif. By doing so, it would provide an opportunity to review whether respective concepts could been linked with contemporary life. One primary component of ‘courtly love’ is the subject of distant admiration; the fantasy of which was based entirely on the unpleasant concept of a male protagonist desiring to possess an inaccessible woman -- possibly either betrothed or already married. A summary of the content expected from this motif is as follows:

[...] the male lover presents himself as engrossed in a yearning desire for the love of an exceedingly beautiful and perfect woman whose strange emotional aloofness and high social status make her appear hopelessly distant. But the frustrated and sorrow-ful lover cannot overcome his fascination and renders faithful "love service" to this "high-minded" and exacting lady who reciprocates in a surprising man-ner: She does not grant him the amorous "reward" which he craves, but she gives him what immeasurably increases his "worth": She rewards him with approval and reassurance. The great lady accepts him as being worthy of her attention, but only at the price of behavioral restraint and refinement of man-ners, that is, at the price of Courtois behavior.

Thematically, this concept is heavily exemplified in Geoffrey Chaucer’s, The Canterbury Tales: The Knight’s Tale. In context, the character of Palamon expresses a sudden passion for Emily (whose sole purpose in the text is to act as an object of desire) and this is made evident when he exclaims, “[...]Into myn herte, that wol my bane be. The fairnesse of that lady, that I see. Yond in the gardyn romen to and fro. Is cause of al my criyng and my wo”. Palmon's lovesickness has been expressed not only by the use of strong, emotional language but has additionally been written in iambic pentameter; a distinctive quality of court poetry produced in the High Medieval period. With regard to both the thematic content and construct of The Knight’s Tale, it is possible to determine a connection between the court poetry of the High Medieval period and Chaucer’s representation of unrequited love in the Late Medieval period. Through this, it could be argued that the key literary motifs of ‘courtly love’ had remained unchanged over the Late Medieval period. This is made evident by the fact that even so The Knight’s Tale had been published in the fourteenth century, it does share significant qualities with fictional texts from the twelfth century. This is illustrative of  the idealism of ‘courtly love’ in contemporary life through the High and Late Medieval periods. From this, it is been observed that there is evidence to ascribe that the practice of courtly love was not confined to the boundaries of textual representation. To a certain extent, it has been identified that the act of ‘worshipping from afar’ was an aristocratic practice during the Late Medieval period. This observation is highlighted by Williams when she puts forward the suggestion that - as a tradition - the enacting of ‘courtly romance’ by the aristocracy had been based on social advancement and systemic hierarchy:

Much of the research on the development of aristocracies has shown that ruling elites establish their privileges in myth as well as in history from the very start.' Resting firmly on genuinely old or recently-confected traditions, ideologies of the nobility are designed to be accepted as truth, and social hierarchies are presented as ordering principles. As a "system of meaning" or, as Timothy Reiss calls it, "dominant discourse," the chivalric ideal structures the ritual perception of the Middle Ages and beyond in that it articulates forms of political, literary, and social self-expression and social control by its monopoly on military, ecclesiastical, and administrative power. Aristocratic modes of representation which rest on agreement among noble equals are directed in the first instance at non-noble audiences.

From this, it is understood that the practice of these conventions were applied as a way to emphasise the fundamental differences between the nobility and the common people; as well as to illustrate a status of authority. As a result of this, it has been confidently ascertained that court-life during the Late Medieval period based itself upon a construct of Fictions. This is illustrative in an argument proposed by John Stevens, in which he claims that the late fourteenth to the sixteenth century saw the practice of what he coined ‘the game of love’. This included “[...] reading and talking about love, and acting, playing, and emulating the lover, provided a primary form of polite recreation for ‘social play’ and ‘social display’”. This is exemplified by reviewing a concept known as the ‘language of love’ -- a ‘romantic’ convention that has often been referred to as “Petrarchan Politics”. The Petrarchan tradition encompasses an aspect of courtly romance, as it is defined by the relationship had between monarch and subject. Furthermore, it has been established that there are similarities in the traits found within the Petrarchan practice and the portrayal of ‘courtly love’ within medieval literature. For instance, the mannerisms enacted by Petrarchan courtiers were reflective of the ‘courtly love’ archetype; a chief characteristic of this being the expression of chivalrous ideals and theatrical language. Nevertheless, the purpose of utilising “Petrarchan politics” was in order to obtain loyalty and favour not only between courtiers but also from the monarch themselves. However, even so this construct does not directly relate to the fictional representation of ‘courtly love’, it is demonstrative of the influence that textual depictions of romance had on contemporary life within the aristocracy.  

Although the contemporary practice of ‘courtly love’ is mainly regarded as an aristocratic pastime, there is evidence to determine that this convention did have an influence on non-noble society during the Late Medieval period. In relation this, another identifiable motif of ‘courtly love’ was the involvement of social constructs such as ‘chastity’; a significant element of womanhood during this period. This inclusion of gendered themes provided writers with a platform to formulate opposition or threat to ‘womanhood’. Medievalist C. S. Lewis had regarded the theme of adultery as a sine qua non of courtly love. Although there are scholars who have disagreed with this statement, it still remains a trend among literary theorists to consider the concept of ‘adultery’ as an essential component of medieval romance. For example, it has been assessed that an underlying theme running throughout Sir Gawaine and the Green Knight (an Arthurian tale that had been written during the fourteenth century) is this emphasis on loyalty and adultery. Certainly, it may be affirmed that both of these elements had played a significant role in regards to the plot-line. In summary, this story largely concerns the chivalrous qualities of Sir Gawaine; as these are publicly questioned and tested by an allusive character known as the Green Knight. It is during his quest that Sir Gawaine comes upon a castle and is invited in by the Lord of the house. It is in the third section of this tale that the protagonist is approached by the Lord’s wife: “The beautiful princess pressed him so hard. Urged him so near the limit, he needed either to take her love or boorishly turn her away. To offend like a boor was bad enough; to fall into sin would be worse.” As an act of loyalty, Sir Gawaine appears to reject her advances and it is during the fourth section - when the Green Knight is revealed as the Lord of the house - that Gawaine is rewarded for this decision. This is exemplified within the text when the Green Knight states, “For I planned it all, to test you - and truly, not many better man have walked this earth, been worth as much - like a pearl to a pea, compared to other knights”. Although this particular example of medieval fiction illustrates the negative impact of adultery, it has been insisted by Donald R. Howard - in his book Chaucer and the Medieval World - that “[...] in this ‘religion’ of love adultery was the norm”. Although there is limited evidence regarding the cultural approach toward ‘adultery’, Howard does provide historical context as to how fictional representations had not been well-received by the church; particularly as the subject-matter defied and threatened established gender-roles: 

Some think the ‘religion of love’ was an actual heresy, something the church opposed a serious effort of medieval man to shake his fist at the ascetical strictures of Christian morality. But although the church didn’t like it, and did condemn some literary works about it, if it had perceived courtly love as a serious heresy it would have been crushed it. 

Nonetheless, there is limited evidence to determine a cultural link between the fictional representation of ‘adultery’ and the approach had towards it in contemporary life. However, the concept of ‘adultery’ does instead highlight an additional characteristic of ‘courtly love’ - namely the depiction of strict gender-roles and stereotypes. Helen Cooper, author of The English Romance in Time: Transforming Motifs from Geoffrey of Monmouth to the Death of Shakespeare, demonstrates this point when she writes, “Although the link between adultery and courtly love has been extensively challenged, the concept itself is still often invoked in relation to the romances’ representations of women, in particular to claims that the lady is denied any subjectivity.” With thought to the Petrarchan convention of distant admiration, a distinctive trait of it is that the woman will remain mute during Petrarchan verse. Additional to this, Elizabeth Heale addresses the same issue in her piece, Women and the Courtly Love Lyric: The Devonshire MS, in which she states -

[...] referring primarily to the printed love lyrics available in the sixteenth century, writes that the ‘amorous discourses’ available to women’ had been constructed by male writers who represented women as silent objects of love rather than its active, articulate pursuers.

In his article The Social Causation of the Courtly Love Concept, Moller puts forward the argument that courtly literature was not reflective of the contemporary practice of courting; although it may instead be regarded as a representation of the literary conventions of the period. It is possible to observe that among literary theorists, Moller’s views concerning the contemporary authenticity of ‘court romance’ does appear to go relatively unchallenged. Joan M. Ferrante - a professor of English and comparative literature - further assists Moller’s argument by highlighting a significant medieval text; using Andreas Capellanus’ De Arte Honeste Amandi (when directly translated means The Art of Courtly Love -- written in the twelfth-century), Ferrante states that the guide should not be read as an accurate reflection of courtly practices during the twelfth century. In relation to contemporary sources - such as The Art of Courtly Love - it has certainly been argued that didactic material does not necessarily represent the customs of a period but instead, it may be reviewed as an example of social expectations. However, what Cappellanus’ work does present is an argument that courtly love did transcend from literature to courtly practices. Even so the exaggerated nature of court romance did not authentically represent Late Medieval society, there is substantial evidence that the motifs found within textual representations of ‘courtly love’ were utilized by contemporary nobility.

Bibliography

Primary Sources:

Anon., ‘Sir Gawaine and the Green Knight’

Chaucer, Geoffrey., ‘The Canterbury Tales: The Knight's Tale’

Secondary Sources:

Cooper, H., The English Romance in Time: Transforming Motifs from Geoffrey of Monmouth the the Death of Shakespeare, (Oxford, 2004)

Ferrante, M. J., ‘Cotres’Amor in Medieval Texts’, Speculum, 55 (1980), 686-695

Forni, K., ‘Literature of Courtly Love: Introduction’, The Chaucerian Apocrypha: A Selection, (2005)

Greenblatt, S., Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to Shakespeare, (London, 1980)

Heale, E., ‘‘Women and the Courtly Love Lyric: The Devonshire MS (BL Additional 17492), The Modern Language Review (1995), 296-313

Howard, R. D., ‘Chaucer and the Medieval World’, (1987)

Laurie, R. C. H., ‘Chrétien de Troyes and the Love Religion’, Romanische Forschungen, (1989)

MacLEOD, C., ‘Stella speaks: the Petrarchan convention revisited’, Critical Survey, 3 (1992), 3-13

Moller, H., ‘The Social Causation of the Courtly Love Complex’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 1 (1959), 137-163

Moller, H., ‘The Meaning of Courtly Love’, The Journal of American Folklore, 73 (1960), 39-52

Williams, S. G., ‘License to Laugh: Making Fun of Chivalry in Some Medieval Texts’, 78 (1986), 26-37